For the first time in our evolutionary history, we are surrounded by a sea of radiofrequency radiation. It is used by meteorologists, astronomers, air traffic control, global positioning systems, microwaves, cordless phones, cell phones, wireless devices and wi-fi “hot spots.” We can’t see or hear or feel radiowaves, but they can affect our bodies.
Hundreds of studies on the health effects of radiofrequency radiation in general, and cell phones in particular, have shown mixed results. Those sponsored by the cell phone industry consistently find no evidence of harm while independent researchers consistently report cause for concern. But one thing is clear: The longest studies, those that have followed cell phone users for ten years or more, have found an increased risk of brain cancer.
Cell phones are here to stay, but there are several simple steps that everyone can take to minimize their exposure to radiofrequency radiation and even prevent some of the damaging effects.
Radiofrequency Radiation
Cell phones are radios that convert data, sound and pictures into pulsed signals of radiofrequency radiation, a form of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation. These signals are absorbed by the tissues they come into contact with. The closer you are to the source, the stronger the radiation and the deeper the penetration. A study published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute found that radiofrequency fields from cell phones held next to the head can penetrate four to six centimeters into the brain.
Radiofrequency signals are dangerous because, as research has shown, they can disturb DNA, damage chromosomes, alter gene expression, induce abnormal brain waves, change blood flow patterns and glucose metabolism in the brain, and create free radicals in the body. Free radicals can damage cells and compromise the blood-brain barrier, a system of capillaries designed to keep potentially harmful substances away from sensitive brain tissues. Once this barrier is breached, toxins can enter the brain and cause damage.
Radiofrequency radiation has not been well studied in children but it is well accepted that because their brains are still developing, their tissues are thinner, and their heads are smaller, they are especially vulnerable to the effects of cell phone signals. Experts estimate that the brains of children absorb twice as much radiation, or more, than those of adults.
This is especially concerning given the extensive use of cell phones by young people. A 2009 survey found that 75 percent of 12- to 17-year-olds own cell phones. One in three sends more than 100 text messages each day or 3000 texts each month, and more than four out of five sleep with their cell phones under their pillow, or on or next to their bed.
Harmful Health Effects
Researchers that followed regular cell phone users for ten years or more found an increased risk of developing brain tumors, both benign and malignant. Shorter studies have associated heavy use of cell phones with
• Parotid gland tumors in the cheek
• Acoustic neuromas, tumors of the nerve connecting the inner ear to the brain
• Altered electrical activity in the brain
• Hearing loss
• Impaired vision
• Neurological problems
• Behavioral problems
• Headaches
• Increased blood pressure
• Heart rate variability
• Disrupted sleep
• Fatigue
• Increased release of mercury from dental amalgams
• Fertility problems in men
Cell phone exposure in utero has been shown to increase heart rates and decrease cardiac output in fetuses, and cause developmental problems in children. A study at the University of Los Angeles, California followed more than 13,000 children from pregnancy through age seven. They found that prenatal and postnatal exposure to cell phone radiation was associated with behavioral problems, emotional difficulties and hyperactivity, and that prenatal exposure was a greater risk factor than postnatal exposure. Other research has linked cell phone signals to memory and learning difficulties in children.
Minimizing Exposure
To minimize exposure to radio frequency radiation, take these precautions:
• Use a corded land line whenever possible.
• Before you buy a cell phone or other wireless device, consider the SAR, or specific absorption rate, which indicates the relative amount of radiofrequency energy absorbed by the body when using a given product. The Federal Communications Commission allows wireless phones to have a maximum SAR level of 1.6 watts per kilogram, but studies show that biological effects occur well below this level. Researchers in Sweden that analyzed the cell phone use of more than 2400 people found that negative health effects started when the SAR was greater than 0.5 watts per kilogram, especially when phone calls were long.
• Read all of the materials that come with your cell phone or other wireless device. If there is no retractable antenna, it is embedded in the phone and you will likely find, in the fine print, that the manufacturer warns against placing the phone next to your head. Many new models are tested with a “spacer” that prevents the cell phone from coming within a half inch (or so) of the ear and greatly increases the amount of allowable radiation. This small space really makes a big difference because signal strength drops off dramatically with distance. Experts estimate that for every millimeter a cell phone is held away from the head, the brain is exposed to ten percent less radiation.
• Keep cell phone antennas away from pregnant women, babies and children.
• Do not keep wireless devices in your pockets or next to your body when they are turned on. Do not sleep next to your cell phone if it is turned on.
• Use a headset, wireless headphone (like Bluetooth) or speaker whenever possible. When you can’t use a hands-free device, regularly change the ear you listen with.
• Keep calls short and when you don’t need to speak in person, send text messages instead.
• Use your cell phone only when the signal strength is strong. Weak signals increase the output of radiofrequency radiation.
• Avoid using your cell phone inside spaces enclosed by metal, like elevators, subways, trains, planes and cars.
• If you have a Wi-Fi transmitter, keep it in a location away from where you work and sleep.
Antioxidant Protection
Free radicals produced by radiofrequency radiation are unstable molecules missing an electron. They readily react with other molecules in order to gain an electron, causing those molecules to become unstable free radicals themselves. This starts a chain reaction that damages cells and tissues in the body.
Studies show that free radicals from cell phone radiation can be countered with antioxidants. Researchers have found that vitamin C, vitamin E, Ginkgo biloba, melatonin, and a compound found in honeybee propolis (caffeic acid phenethyl ester or CAPE) can prevent or diminish oxidative damage from cell phones.
A multivitamin can provide adequate amounts of antioxidant vitamins C and E, but these nutrients can also be found in food. Fruits and vegetables are the best sources of vitamin C, and vitamin E is found in raw nuts and seeds, yogurt, tofu and tempeh, and leafy greens like spinach and wild purslane. Eating these foods regularly can provide natural protection.
For some people, supplements are also useful. But before taking any new medicine, natural or not, always talk to your doctor about the possibility of interactions and adverse effects, and the best dosage for you.
References:
Aalto S et al. Mobile phone affects cerebral blood flow in humans. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. 2006 Jul; 26(7):885-90.
Abdel-Rassoul G et al. Neurobehavioral effects among inhabitants around mobile phone base stations. Neurotoxicology. 2007 Mar; 28(2):434-40.
Braune S et al. Resting blood pressure increase during exposure to a radio-frequency electromagnetic field. Lancet. 1998 Jun 20; 351(9119):1857-8.
Burch JB et al. Melatonin metabolite excretion among cellular telephone users. International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2002 Nov; 78(11):1029-36.
Campisi A et al. Reactive oxygen species levels and DNA fragmentation on astrocytes in primary culture after acute exposure to low intensity microwave electromagnetic field. Neuroscience Letters. 2010 Mar 31; 473(1):52-5.
Cao Z et al. [Effects of electromagnetic radiation from handsets of cellular telephone on neurobehavioral function]. Wei Sheng Yan Jiu. [Journal of Hygiene Research.] 2000 Mar 30; 29(2):102-3.
Christensen HC et al. Cellular telephone use and risk of acoustic neuroma. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2004 Feb 1; 159(3):277-83.
De Iuliis GN et al. Mobile phone radiation induces reactive oxygen species production and DNA damage in human spermatozoa in vitro. PLoS One. 2009 Jul 31; 4(7):e6446.
Divan HA et al. Prenatal and postnatal exposure to cell phone use and behavioral problems in children. Epidemiology. 2008 Jul; 19(4):523-9.
Eberhardt JL et al. Blood-brain barrier permeability and nerve cell damage in rat brain 14 and 28 days after exposure to microwaves from GSM mobile phones. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine. 2008; 27(3):215-29.
Fragopoulou AF et al. Cranial and postcranial skeletal variations induced in mouse embryos by mobile phone radiation. Pathophysiology. 2010 Jun; 17(3):169-77.
Fragopoulou A et al. Scientific panel on electromagnetic field health risks: consensus points, recommendations, and rationales. Reviews on Environmental Health. 2010 Oct-Dec;25(4):307-17.
Fragopoulou AF et al. Whole body exposure with GSM 900MHz affects spatial memory in mice. Pathophysiology. 2010 Jun; 17(3):179-87.
Franzellitti S et al. Transient DNA damage induced by high-frequency electromagnetic fields (GSM 1.8 GHz) in the human trophoblast HTR-8/SVneo cell line evaluated with the alkaline comet assay. Mutation Research. 2010 Jan 5;683(1-2):35-42.
Hardell L et al. Case-control study on radiology work, medical x-ray investigations, and use of cellular telephones as risk factors for brain tumors. Medscape General Medicine. 2000 May 4; 2(2):E2.
Hardell L et al. Case-control study on the use of cellular and cordless phones and the risk for malignant brain tumours. International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2002 Oct; 78(10):931-6.
Hardell L et al. Cellular and cordless telephones and the risk for brain tumours. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2002 Aug; 11(4):377-86.
Hardell L et al. Epidemiological evidence for an association between use of wireless phones and tumor diseases. Pathophysiology. 2009 Aug; 16(2-3):113-22.
Hardell L et al. Long-term use of cellular phones and brain tumours: increased risk associated with use for > or =10 years. Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2007 Sep; 64(9):626-32.
Hardell L et al. Pooled analysis of two case-control studies on use of cellular and cordless telephones and the risk for malignant brain tumours diagnosed in 1997-2003. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 2006 Sep; 79(8):630-9.
Hardell L et al. Meta-analysis of long-term mobile phone use and the association with brain tumours. International Journal of Oncology. 2008 May; 32(5):1097-103.
Harvey C and French PW. Effects on protein kinase C and gene expression in a human mast cell line, HMC-1, following microwave exposure. Cell Biology International. 2000; 23(11):739-48.
Huber R et al. Exposure to pulse-modulated radio frequency electromagnetic fields affects regional cerebral blood flow. European Journal of Neuroscience. 2005 Feb; 21(4):1000-6.
Huber R et al. Radio frequency electromagnetic field exposure in humans: Estimation of SAR distribution in the brain, effects on sleep and heart rate. Bioelectromagnetics. 2003 May; 24(4):262-76.
Ilhan A ewt al. Ginkgo biloba prevents mobile phone-induced oxidative stress in rat brain. Clinica Chimica Acta (International Journal of Clinical Chemistry). 2004 Feb; 340(1-2):153-62.
Irmak MK et al. Effects of electromagnetic radiation from a cellular telephone on the oxidant and antioxidant levels in rabbits. Cell Biochemistry and Function. 2002 Dec; 20(4):279-83.
Jarupat S et al. Effects of the 1900 MHz electromagnetic field emitted from cellular phone on nocturnal melatonin secretion. Journal of Physiological Anthropology and Applied Human Science. 2003 Jan; 22(1):61-3.
Kesari KK et a. Mutagenic response of 2.45 GHz radiation exposure on rat brain. International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2010 Apr; 86(4):334-43.
Khurana VG et al. Cell phones and brain tumors: a review including the long-term epidemiologic data. Surgical Neurology. 2009 Sep; 72(3):205-14; discussion 214-5.
Koyu A et al. Effects of 900MHz electromagnetic field on TSH and thyroid hormones in rats. Toxicology Letters. 157(3):257-262, 2005b.
Krause CM et al. Effects of electromagnetic fields emitted by cellular phones on the electroencephalogram during a visual working memory task. International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2000 Dec; 76(12):1659-67.
Krause CM et a. Mobile phone effects on children's event-related oscillatory EEG during an auditory memory task. International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2006 Jun; 82(6):443-50.
Kühn S et al. Assessment of the radio-frequency electromagnetic fields induced in the human body from mobile phones used with hands-free kits. Physics in Medicine and Biology. 2009 Sep 21; 54(18):5493-508.
Lenhart A et al. Teens and mobile phones: text messaging explodes as teens embrace it as the centerpiece of their communication strategies with friends. Pew Research Center. Available online at http://www.pewinternet.org/~/media/Files/Reports/2010/PIP-Teens-and-Mobile-2010-with-topline.pdf (accessed 16 Feb 2011).
Lönn S et al. Mobile phone use and the risk of acoustic neuroma. Epidemiology. 2004 Nov; 15(6):653-9.
Maier R et al. Effects of pulsed electromagnetic fields on cognitive processes - a pilot study on pulsed field interference with cognitive regeneration. Acta Neurologica Scandinavia. 2004 Jul; 110(1):46-52.
Mann K and Röschke J. Effects of pulsed high-frequency electromagnetic fields on human sleep. Neuropsychobiology. 1996; 33(1):41-7.
Marinelli F et al. Exposure to 900 MHz electromagnetic field induces an unbalance between pro-apoptotic and pro-survival signals in T-lymphoblastoid leukemia CCRF-CEM cells. Journal of Cellular Physiology. 2004 Feb; 198(2):324-32.
Marino AA et al. Nonlinear changes in brain electrical activity due to cell phone radiation. Bioelectromagnetics. 2003 Jul; 24(5):339-46.
Martínez-Búrdalo M et al. Comparison of FDTD-calculated specific absorption rate in adults and children when using a mobile phone at 900 and 1800 MHz. Physics in Medicine and Biology. 2004 Jan 21; 49(2):345-54.
Mausset AL et al. Effects of radiofrequency exposure on the GABAergic system in the rat cerebellum: clues from semi-quantitative immunohistochemistry. Brain Research. 2001 Aug 31; 912(1):33-46.
Meo SA and Al-Drees AM. Mobile phone related-hazards and subjective hearing and vision symptoms in the Saudi population. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health. 2005; 18(1):53-7.
Mild KH et al. Pooled analysis of two Swedish case-control studies on the use of mobile and cordless telephones and the risk of brain tumours diagnosed during 1997-2003. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics. 2007; 13(1):63-71.
Monfrecola G et al. Non-ionizing electromagnetic radiations, emitted by a cellular phone, modify cutaneous blood flow. Dermatology. 2003; 207(1):10-4.
Mortazavi SM et al. Mercury release from dental amalgam restorations after magnetic resonance imaging and following mobile phone use. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences. 2008 Apr 15; 11(8):1142-6.
Nittby H et al. Cognitive impairment in rats after long-term exposure to GSM-900 mobile phone radiation. Bioelectromagnetics. 2008 Apr; 29(3):219-32.
Nittby H et al. Increased blood-brain barrier permeability in mammalian brain 7 days after exposure to the radiation from a GSM-900 mobile phone. Pathophysiology. 2009 Aug; 16(2-3):103-12.
Oktay MF and Dasdag S. Effects of intensive and moderate cellular phone use on hearing function. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine. 2006; 25(1):13-21.
Oral B et al. Endometrial apoptosis induced by a 900-MHz mobile phone: preventive effects of vitamins E and C. Adances in Therapy. 2006 Nov-Dec; 23(6):957-73.
Oktem F et al. Oxidative damage in the kidney induced by 900-MHz-emitted mobile phone: protection by melatonin. Archives of Medical Research. 2005 Jul-Aug; 36(4):350-5.
Ozguner F et al. Prevention of mobile phone induced skin tissue changes by melatonin in rat: an experimental study. Toxicology and Industrial Health. 2004 Sep; 20(6-10):133-9.
Ozguner M et al. Biological and morphological effects on the reproductive organ of rats after exposure to electromagnetic field. Saudi Medical Journal. 2005 Mar; 26(3):405-10.
Ozguner F et al. A novel antioxidant agent caffeic acid phenethyl ester prevents long-term mobile phone exposure-induced renal impairment in rat. Prognostic value of malondialdehyde, N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase and nitric oxide determination. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry. 2005 Sep; 277(1-2):73-80.
Ozguner F et al. Mobile phone-induced myocardial oxidative stress: protection by a novel antioxidant agent caffeic acid phenethyl ester. Toxicology and Industrial Health. 2005 Oct; 21(9):223-30.
Pacini S et al. Exposure to global system for mobile communication (GSM) cellular phone radiofrequency alters gene expression, proliferation, and morphology of human skin fibroblasts. Oncology Research. 2002; 13(1):19-24.
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Hundreds of studies on the health effects of radiofrequency radiation in general, and cell phones in particular, have shown mixed results. Those sponsored by the cell phone industry consistently find no evidence of harm while independent researchers consistently report cause for concern. But one thing is clear: The longest studies, those that have followed cell phone users for ten years or more, have found an increased risk of brain cancer.
Cell phones are here to stay, but there are several simple steps that everyone can take to minimize their exposure to radiofrequency radiation and even prevent some of the damaging effects.
Radiofrequency Radiation
Cell phones are radios that convert data, sound and pictures into pulsed signals of radiofrequency radiation, a form of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation. These signals are absorbed by the tissues they come into contact with. The closer you are to the source, the stronger the radiation and the deeper the penetration. A study published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute found that radiofrequency fields from cell phones held next to the head can penetrate four to six centimeters into the brain.
Radiofrequency signals are dangerous because, as research has shown, they can disturb DNA, damage chromosomes, alter gene expression, induce abnormal brain waves, change blood flow patterns and glucose metabolism in the brain, and create free radicals in the body. Free radicals can damage cells and compromise the blood-brain barrier, a system of capillaries designed to keep potentially harmful substances away from sensitive brain tissues. Once this barrier is breached, toxins can enter the brain and cause damage.
Radiofrequency radiation has not been well studied in children but it is well accepted that because their brains are still developing, their tissues are thinner, and their heads are smaller, they are especially vulnerable to the effects of cell phone signals. Experts estimate that the brains of children absorb twice as much radiation, or more, than those of adults.
This is especially concerning given the extensive use of cell phones by young people. A 2009 survey found that 75 percent of 12- to 17-year-olds own cell phones. One in three sends more than 100 text messages each day or 3000 texts each month, and more than four out of five sleep with their cell phones under their pillow, or on or next to their bed.
Harmful Health Effects
Researchers that followed regular cell phone users for ten years or more found an increased risk of developing brain tumors, both benign and malignant. Shorter studies have associated heavy use of cell phones with
• Parotid gland tumors in the cheek
• Acoustic neuromas, tumors of the nerve connecting the inner ear to the brain
• Altered electrical activity in the brain
• Hearing loss
• Impaired vision
• Neurological problems
• Behavioral problems
• Headaches
• Increased blood pressure
• Heart rate variability
• Disrupted sleep
• Fatigue
• Increased release of mercury from dental amalgams
• Fertility problems in men
Cell phone exposure in utero has been shown to increase heart rates and decrease cardiac output in fetuses, and cause developmental problems in children. A study at the University of Los Angeles, California followed more than 13,000 children from pregnancy through age seven. They found that prenatal and postnatal exposure to cell phone radiation was associated with behavioral problems, emotional difficulties and hyperactivity, and that prenatal exposure was a greater risk factor than postnatal exposure. Other research has linked cell phone signals to memory and learning difficulties in children.
Minimizing Exposure
To minimize exposure to radio frequency radiation, take these precautions:
• Use a corded land line whenever possible.
• Before you buy a cell phone or other wireless device, consider the SAR, or specific absorption rate, which indicates the relative amount of radiofrequency energy absorbed by the body when using a given product. The Federal Communications Commission allows wireless phones to have a maximum SAR level of 1.6 watts per kilogram, but studies show that biological effects occur well below this level. Researchers in Sweden that analyzed the cell phone use of more than 2400 people found that negative health effects started when the SAR was greater than 0.5 watts per kilogram, especially when phone calls were long.
• Read all of the materials that come with your cell phone or other wireless device. If there is no retractable antenna, it is embedded in the phone and you will likely find, in the fine print, that the manufacturer warns against placing the phone next to your head. Many new models are tested with a “spacer” that prevents the cell phone from coming within a half inch (or so) of the ear and greatly increases the amount of allowable radiation. This small space really makes a big difference because signal strength drops off dramatically with distance. Experts estimate that for every millimeter a cell phone is held away from the head, the brain is exposed to ten percent less radiation.
• Keep cell phone antennas away from pregnant women, babies and children.
• Do not keep wireless devices in your pockets or next to your body when they are turned on. Do not sleep next to your cell phone if it is turned on.
• Use a headset, wireless headphone (like Bluetooth) or speaker whenever possible. When you can’t use a hands-free device, regularly change the ear you listen with.
• Keep calls short and when you don’t need to speak in person, send text messages instead.
• Use your cell phone only when the signal strength is strong. Weak signals increase the output of radiofrequency radiation.
• Avoid using your cell phone inside spaces enclosed by metal, like elevators, subways, trains, planes and cars.
• If you have a Wi-Fi transmitter, keep it in a location away from where you work and sleep.
Antioxidant Protection
Free radicals produced by radiofrequency radiation are unstable molecules missing an electron. They readily react with other molecules in order to gain an electron, causing those molecules to become unstable free radicals themselves. This starts a chain reaction that damages cells and tissues in the body.
Studies show that free radicals from cell phone radiation can be countered with antioxidants. Researchers have found that vitamin C, vitamin E, Ginkgo biloba, melatonin, and a compound found in honeybee propolis (caffeic acid phenethyl ester or CAPE) can prevent or diminish oxidative damage from cell phones.
A multivitamin can provide adequate amounts of antioxidant vitamins C and E, but these nutrients can also be found in food. Fruits and vegetables are the best sources of vitamin C, and vitamin E is found in raw nuts and seeds, yogurt, tofu and tempeh, and leafy greens like spinach and wild purslane. Eating these foods regularly can provide natural protection.
For some people, supplements are also useful. But before taking any new medicine, natural or not, always talk to your doctor about the possibility of interactions and adverse effects, and the best dosage for you.
References:
Aalto S et al. Mobile phone affects cerebral blood flow in humans. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. 2006 Jul; 26(7):885-90.
Abdel-Rassoul G et al. Neurobehavioral effects among inhabitants around mobile phone base stations. Neurotoxicology. 2007 Mar; 28(2):434-40.
Braune S et al. Resting blood pressure increase during exposure to a radio-frequency electromagnetic field. Lancet. 1998 Jun 20; 351(9119):1857-8.
Burch JB et al. Melatonin metabolite excretion among cellular telephone users. International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2002 Nov; 78(11):1029-36.
Campisi A et al. Reactive oxygen species levels and DNA fragmentation on astrocytes in primary culture after acute exposure to low intensity microwave electromagnetic field. Neuroscience Letters. 2010 Mar 31; 473(1):52-5.
Cao Z et al. [Effects of electromagnetic radiation from handsets of cellular telephone on neurobehavioral function]. Wei Sheng Yan Jiu. [Journal of Hygiene Research.] 2000 Mar 30; 29(2):102-3.
Christensen HC et al. Cellular telephone use and risk of acoustic neuroma. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2004 Feb 1; 159(3):277-83.
De Iuliis GN et al. Mobile phone radiation induces reactive oxygen species production and DNA damage in human spermatozoa in vitro. PLoS One. 2009 Jul 31; 4(7):e6446.
Divan HA et al. Prenatal and postnatal exposure to cell phone use and behavioral problems in children. Epidemiology. 2008 Jul; 19(4):523-9.
Eberhardt JL et al. Blood-brain barrier permeability and nerve cell damage in rat brain 14 and 28 days after exposure to microwaves from GSM mobile phones. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine. 2008; 27(3):215-29.
Fragopoulou AF et al. Cranial and postcranial skeletal variations induced in mouse embryos by mobile phone radiation. Pathophysiology. 2010 Jun; 17(3):169-77.
Fragopoulou A et al. Scientific panel on electromagnetic field health risks: consensus points, recommendations, and rationales. Reviews on Environmental Health. 2010 Oct-Dec;25(4):307-17.
Fragopoulou AF et al. Whole body exposure with GSM 900MHz affects spatial memory in mice. Pathophysiology. 2010 Jun; 17(3):179-87.
Franzellitti S et al. Transient DNA damage induced by high-frequency electromagnetic fields (GSM 1.8 GHz) in the human trophoblast HTR-8/SVneo cell line evaluated with the alkaline comet assay. Mutation Research. 2010 Jan 5;683(1-2):35-42.
Hardell L et al. Case-control study on radiology work, medical x-ray investigations, and use of cellular telephones as risk factors for brain tumors. Medscape General Medicine. 2000 May 4; 2(2):E2.
Hardell L et al. Case-control study on the use of cellular and cordless phones and the risk for malignant brain tumours. International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2002 Oct; 78(10):931-6.
Hardell L et al. Cellular and cordless telephones and the risk for brain tumours. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2002 Aug; 11(4):377-86.
Hardell L et al. Epidemiological evidence for an association between use of wireless phones and tumor diseases. Pathophysiology. 2009 Aug; 16(2-3):113-22.
Hardell L et al. Long-term use of cellular phones and brain tumours: increased risk associated with use for > or =10 years. Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2007 Sep; 64(9):626-32.
Hardell L et al. Pooled analysis of two case-control studies on use of cellular and cordless telephones and the risk for malignant brain tumours diagnosed in 1997-2003. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 2006 Sep; 79(8):630-9.
Hardell L et al. Meta-analysis of long-term mobile phone use and the association with brain tumours. International Journal of Oncology. 2008 May; 32(5):1097-103.
Harvey C and French PW. Effects on protein kinase C and gene expression in a human mast cell line, HMC-1, following microwave exposure. Cell Biology International. 2000; 23(11):739-48.
Huber R et al. Exposure to pulse-modulated radio frequency electromagnetic fields affects regional cerebral blood flow. European Journal of Neuroscience. 2005 Feb; 21(4):1000-6.
Huber R et al. Radio frequency electromagnetic field exposure in humans: Estimation of SAR distribution in the brain, effects on sleep and heart rate. Bioelectromagnetics. 2003 May; 24(4):262-76.
Ilhan A ewt al. Ginkgo biloba prevents mobile phone-induced oxidative stress in rat brain. Clinica Chimica Acta (International Journal of Clinical Chemistry). 2004 Feb; 340(1-2):153-62.
Irmak MK et al. Effects of electromagnetic radiation from a cellular telephone on the oxidant and antioxidant levels in rabbits. Cell Biochemistry and Function. 2002 Dec; 20(4):279-83.
Jarupat S et al. Effects of the 1900 MHz electromagnetic field emitted from cellular phone on nocturnal melatonin secretion. Journal of Physiological Anthropology and Applied Human Science. 2003 Jan; 22(1):61-3.
Kesari KK et a. Mutagenic response of 2.45 GHz radiation exposure on rat brain. International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2010 Apr; 86(4):334-43.
Khurana VG et al. Cell phones and brain tumors: a review including the long-term epidemiologic data. Surgical Neurology. 2009 Sep; 72(3):205-14; discussion 214-5.
Koyu A et al. Effects of 900MHz electromagnetic field on TSH and thyroid hormones in rats. Toxicology Letters. 157(3):257-262, 2005b.
Krause CM et al. Effects of electromagnetic fields emitted by cellular phones on the electroencephalogram during a visual working memory task. International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2000 Dec; 76(12):1659-67.
Krause CM et a. Mobile phone effects on children's event-related oscillatory EEG during an auditory memory task. International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2006 Jun; 82(6):443-50.
Kühn S et al. Assessment of the radio-frequency electromagnetic fields induced in the human body from mobile phones used with hands-free kits. Physics in Medicine and Biology. 2009 Sep 21; 54(18):5493-508.
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